• Definitions of stress approach stress from three viewpoints
  • from the viewpoint of the stressor
  • from the reaction to the stressor
  • from an interactionist view of the relation between the event and the person experiencing it

1. Stress in Terms of Stressors

Life Event Stressors

• Holmes and Rahe (1967) suggest lifestyle changes can create stress; as the number of changes increase the risk of illness grows; stress can cause effect for as long as one year after the events
• to check your stress level click on this link: Stress Assessment

  Occupational Stressors

• consider the physical environment: florescent lights, air quality, heating variation, noise
• consider interpersonal relations: angry /demanding boss, unhappy competitive coworkers
• consider pressure of technological change

  Psychological Changes

• Friedman and Rosenman (1974) suggest there are two types of personalities Type A and Type B; These researchers say Type A are more likely to suffer heart attacks.
• Type A characteristics: explosively accentuate key words in ordinary conversation; always, walk, talk and eat rapidly; impatient at rate at which things get done; frequently do two things at once; preoccupied with own ideas and change conversations to their topics; feel guilty when relaxing; fail to notice beauty in surroundings; seek to get things done rather than enjoying them; try to do more in less time; feel challenged by other Type A's; exhibit gestures or tics; take pride in doing things better because of speed; translate everyone and everything in terms of numbers (time, amount distance)
• Type B characteristics: no time urgency; no free floating hostility; play for fun; no need to display achievements
• recent studies say it may only be the hostility that relates to heart attacks

  Pressure

• pressure to perform (meet deadline, get grade, complete task)
• pressure to conform (meet others expectation in speaking, dress, behaviour

  Frustration

• when pursuit of goal is thwarted; two types: failure and loss

  Conflict

• conflict can be internal (guilt or blame for not living up to standard)
• conflict can be interpersonal ( when two people want same thing and only one can have it)

  Daily Hassles

• daily hassles can be as upsetting as major life traumas
• waiting in traffic, lines, on hold

2. Stress as a Response : General Adaptation Syndrome (Hans Selye 1974/1976)

• Hans Selye from McGill University says Stress is a nonspecific response of the body to any demand made upon it. Regardless of the stressor the reaction is the same . This is known as General Adaptation Syndrome
• General Adaptation Syndrome has three stages:
  • Stage One:The Alarm Reaction
    • body is programmed for homeostasis ( a balanced state)
    • when a stressor is presented body goes into flight or fight mode
    • blood pressure increases, respiration rate increases; muscles tense; digestion is inhibited; heart rate increases; blood flow increase to extremities; adrenaline is secreted; perspiration increases
    • in ancient times stressor would present and disappear; now stressor may not be as serious but may be seen in many places resulting in prolonged stress reactions
    • stress may be real or imagined
  • Stage Two:The Resistance Phase
    • body signs of stress disappear; resistance rises; neural glandular systems become hyperactive; person remains in constant state of overstimulation
  • Stage Three: The Exhaustion Stage
    • Body exhausts itself and physical signs of stress reappear; now these may become irreversible; example high blood pressure

Distress versus Eustress

• not all stress is bad
• some seek stress -high sensation seeker-adrenaline junkie may be stressed when bored
• stress may play a part in healthy functioning; some stress challenges
• distress is negative and unwanted; Eustress produces positive feelings-enjoying the energy

3. Stress as an Interaction

• according to interactionists how much stress one experiences depends on the event and the persons reaction to it. Responses to one event will vary depending on the how the stressor is interpreted
• Lazarus and Folkman (19840 say we first appraise the event and its relevance to us; if relevant, determine if threat; then decide if stressful; then make secondary appraisal=what resources do we have; the greater the resources, the less stress
• these appraisals are cognitive evaluations: interests, values, personal wants, beliefs, familiarity, controllability, predictability and imminence
  • Interests: example-s stock market falls; if you have stock stress; no stock, no stress
  • Values: If you value a person their negative opinion of you is stressful
  • Personal Wants; a shy person would not want o assume leadership
  • Beliefs irrational beliefs can contribute to stress
  • Familiarity: Familiarity decrease the amount of stress- been there, done that
  • Controllability: the more control the less stress- who is to blame?
  • Predictability: If you know what is coming it can be less stressful example: layoff
  • Imminence: the closer to time of event the more stress

Coping with Stress

Coping Strategies with Limited Effectiveness

• Withdrawal
  at times leaving is best solution; mature approach is to intelligently and directly deal with issues; some withdraw because of learned helplessness; extreme withdrawal can lead to psychosis
• Aggression

Some lash out physically or verbally; may cause people friends to disappear

• Self-deception

ignore stress, escape from self; rationalize; unload stress on others ; blame; fantasize

Effective Coping Strategies

Cognitive Approaches to Stress Management

Albert Ellis's A-B-C Model of Emotional Response

• according to Ellis, people feel the way they do because of how they think; when we feel anxious, worried or stressed it is usually because of irrational assumptions
• "A" in his model stands for activating event: potential stressor or anything capable of disturbing or upsetting individual; Ellis says after activating event comes appraisal; appraisal is based on a "belief" about stressor; Belief is the B part of his model; the activating event can lead to different consequences The C part of Ellis theory
• alternative to view that event is catastrophe: activating event can be opportunity for positive change

Source: Mastering Human Relations 3rd Edition, A Falikowski, 2002. Pearson Education

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